Word Choice Brake vs. Break - Proofeds Writing Tips

Word Choice Brake vs. Break - Proofeds Writing Tips Word Choice: Brake vs. Break â€Å"Brake† and â€Å"break† sound identical. Both words can be a noun or a verb. They’re even anagrams of one another! But when it comes to their meanings, these terms are entirely distinct. How, then, can you be sure that you’re using â€Å"brake† and â€Å"break† correctly? Check out our guide to make sure your writing is always error free. Brake (Slow Down or Stop) Used as a verb (i.e., an action word) â€Å"brake† means â€Å"slow down or stop a vehicle.† For instance: The car braked before it hit the curb. As a noun, a â€Å"brake† is a device used to stop or slow down a vehicle: Always check your car’s emergency brake before a long journey. We can also use this word figuratively when not discussing vehicles. For example, if we pause a project that is underway to do more planning, we might say that we are â€Å"putting the brakes on it.† Break (Damage, Violate or Interrupt) â€Å"Break† actually has several meanings. As a verb, it can mean to: Damage or destroy something (e.g., It will break if you drop it†¦) Violate a law or promise (e.g., I would never break an oath†¦) Interrupt or end something (e.g., Let’s break for lunch†¦) Reveal something or make it public (e.g., To break news†¦) It is worth noting that the simple past tense and past participle forms of this verb are â€Å"broke† and â€Å"broken† respectively, not â€Å"breaked.† This is because â€Å"break† is an irregular verb. As a noun, meanwhile, a â€Å"break† can be a: Point of damage (e.g., We repaired it at the break†¦) Pause or interruption (e.g., Take regular breaks while writing†¦) Gap or opening in something (e.g., We ran for the break in the tree line†¦) A vacation or holiday (e.g., He went to Cancun for spring break†¦) The word â€Å"break† also features in a number of phrases, such as â€Å"breaking bad.† These can be tricky if you’re not a native English speaker, but keep an ear out for how they are used and don’t be afraid to look up unfamiliar phrases. Brake or Break? These terms have so many meanings between them that it can get confusing! However, the word â€Å"brake† is always related to slowing something down or stopping it (both as a verb and a noun). If you are dealing with any other situation, the correct word will be â€Å"break.† Remember: Brake (verb) = To slow down or stop Brake (noun) = A device for slowing a vehicle down Break (verb) = To damage, violate, or interrupt something Break (noun) = A point of damage, a pause, or a vacation

The Best Prep Books for SAT Writing

The Best Prep Books for SAT Writing SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Are you planning on buying a book to help you prep for SAT Writing? In this article I will discuss the top prep books for SAT Writing on the market today, and why you should or should not buy them. These books can be found at bookstores, the library, or online. If you make use of all these books and practice effectively, you'll be sure t o improve your SAT writing score. Who should use these books? Books are a great way to study for students who are serious about their prep and who are able to motivate themselves. Keep in mind that studying from books is not the most effective method for all students. It’s important that you know how you study best. Buying a book is not going to track your progress or motivate you to study – so you need to be able to do that for yourself, and you also need to be able to understand and evaluate your own mistakes and progress. If that sounds like you, these books will be great for you. In order to take full advantage of these books, you also need to be willing to make a time investment. Just buying a book is not going to make a difference to your score – you have to be willing to commit and spend time – we’re talking at least 10 hours, or much more depending on where you’re starting from - going through it in order to get the benefits. So if you’re looking to invest a good deal of time and want to make a significant improvement in your SAT Writing score, read on to see which books can help you! Foundational Books There are two books that all students should have before taking the SAT. The Official SAT Study Guide from the CollegeBoard Sold on Amazon from $11.81. It’s critically important that when you study, you are using real questions that actually appeared on the SAT. Why? Many test prep companies have people who don’t really understand the test writing their practice questions. There is a good chance that if you only study questions written by prep companies, you will not be seeing the kinds of questions that actually appear on the SAT. The Official SAT Study Guide provides you will 10 full-length practice tests. For the Writing section, that’s 490 multiple choice questions to practice with. When you buy the book, you also get online access to explanations to all of the answers. Additionally, many of the books I will mention below make references to the questions in this book as examples. Where it could be improved: Unfortunately, this book does not work as a complete study tool. It gives little to no explanation for the different concepts that are tested on the test, and only gives the most basic strategy tips – some of which are quite debatable (such as when to guess). Similarly, the online explanations for right and wrong answers aren’t the best. They tend to expect a high level of comprehension of the basic concepts, so you’ll need to understand your own mistakes to make the most of this book. Because of this, it’s best to pair this book with another one or two from the list below, depending on what your score goals are. SAT Prep Black Book by Mike Barrett Available on Amazon from $17.97. This book is critically important because it teaches you how to think about the SAT. It aims to teach students that anyone can succeed on the SAT, as long as they approach the test the right way. For example, the test is predictable in that the material tested is always the same, but has to be difficult enough to stump some students. Therefore, the fairly straightforward grammar rules on the Writing portion of the test will be presented in unexpected ways. If you are ready to view the test this way, it will be easier to see where the College Board is trying to trick you. It contains a lot of practical strategies for how to approach each type of question, and then also explains the answers to several of the questions in The Official SAT Study Guide in depth. In particular, this book gives great advice for how to tackle the essay section of the test. Where it could be improved: This book does not give a clear set of guidelines for how to approach each question, which might make it confusing for some students. I would recommend reading this book for general strategy and learning how to think about the test, and pairing it with other books if you want a more straight-forward list of rules. The end of the book gives a â€Å"Grammar Toolbox† that outlines all of the major grammar concepts you will need to know for SAT Writing. However, these are not paired with example SAT-style questions, so it won’t be the best resource for many students. Best SAT Writing books for high scorers (650 – 800) Blackstone Review’s Maximize Your Writing Score on the SAT Available new at Amazon from $21.95. This excellent prep book focuses in on only the grammar rules covered on SAT Writing. There are several features that make this book stand out. The grammar skills are ranked by the frequency they appear. Each grammar point is ranked between one and three stars, depending on how frequently the concept is tested on the SAT. This is helpful because it helps you focus your studying. You can just cover the most important (3 star) concepts if you're in a rush, or you can focus on the 1 star concepts if you already know the basics andare aiming for a high score. While other test prep books do tell the frequency of grammar rules, this book does it in a very visually-friendly way, which a lot of students may find helpful. The realistic diagnostic test will help you make an effective study plan. The book starts with a diagnostic test. Now, students can always make their own diagnostic tests. I’ll talk about this more below. But I particularly like this diagnostic test because it gives example sentences that test grammar concepts in a very similar way to the SAT. Even better, it gives detailed explanations for each answer and pinpoints which grammar concept is being tested in each question (along with where to find that concept in the book), before showing how the sentence could be revised to be grammatically correct. Though, again, you can do the same process on your own with the practice tests in The Official SAT Study Guide, this could save you a lot of time and help you to quickly see which concepts you are struggling with. This also means you can save all ten practice tests in The Official SAT Study Guide for later practice. Every concept is explained very clearly. The grammar points in this book are laid out in a way that is very easy to read and understand. The grammar rules are explained clearly, briefly, and directly. After each rule, the book gives at least one SAT-style question with an error of the grammar concept just introduced, an explanation of why the error is incorrect, and then gives a revised version of the sentence with the error corrected. I like the immediate reinforcement of each idea, and the revised sentences can help students get used to what correctly-used grammar looks like. Similarly, the end of each chapter gives you additional well-written practice questions with clear explanations. Students who don’t want to get bogged down with a lot of extra words should really like this direct and simple approach. It gets to the point quickly and makes it easy to stay on task. Additionally, the instruction in this book focuses on grammar concepts instead of technical grammar terms. It won’t bog you down with things that you don’t need to know to do well on SAT Writing. The study guides and appendixes at the end of the book provide added depth. The end of the book has two useful review sections. The â€Å"Study Outline† briefly goes over all the grammar concepts covered, and the â€Å"Super Quick Study Guide† gives an overview of just the most important and most frequently-tested grammar concepts. Though this is an unnecessary feature, these sections are nice bonus tools with example sentences that you canuse to get your mind in the correct mode right before the test. The book has several very helpful appendices on topics including â€Å"Common Irregular Verbs†, â€Å"Confusing Word Pairs†, â€Å"Common Prepositional Idioms†, â€Å"Common Diction Errors†, and â€Å"Wordiness and Redundancy†. These are very thorough and go into much greater detail than most SAT Writing test prep books. A lot of these topics, such as prepositional idioms, are things you will need to study if you are aiming for a high score. There is an excellent guide to the essay section. Finally, this book has a guide for the essay section of the test. This is especially valuable because some other Writing SAT prep books completely ignore the essay portion. The essay guide gives some good tips about how to approach the essay, which is something a lot of students struggle with. You’ll get tips for how to start the essay with a strong statement, how to effectively use notes, and what kind of examples you will need. It’s especially good for talking about the mindset you need when you approach the essay, and I think that this combined with the tips given in the Black Book would well prepare stronger writers for the test. However, if you are a weaker or very not confident writer and need a lot of hand-holding and instruction for the essay section of the test, you should probably get an additional guide. Of course, this book is not for everyone. Here’s where it could be improved: The end of the book has example test questions with detailed explanations for each answer. Though these are quite well-written and test grammar in the same way the real SAT does, the questions are pretty limited. There are only 40 Identifying Error questions, 25 Improving Sentences questions, and 7 Improving Paragraphs questions. Many students will not find this to be enough practice. As noted above, this book addresses each grammar topic in a concise and to-the-point fashion. I think these explanations are more than enough for students who have at least a decent understanding of grammar basics. While this will appeal to some students, it will be a turn-off for others who prefer to have things explained in more detail. Finally, the essay tips will not be thorough enough for students who need a lot of help with their writing. The Ultimate Guide to SAT Grammar and the accompanying workbook by Erica Meltzer Available new at Amazon from $27.86. The workbook sells from $28.45 here. Meltzer has a great understanding of the grammar that appears on the SAT and does a good job of explaining the concepts in detail. She goes through everything that you will need to know in order to aim for a perfect score. There are a lot of things that make this book a great pick. Itexplains concepts from the first principle. Metzerdoesn’t assume any prior grammar knowledge, and gives enough information (starting with an overview of the different parts of speech) to help out those who are not confident in their grammar skills or need a refresher of what they learned in grade school and high school. It's comprehensive but focused. The book covers all of the grammar concepts that you will need to know for SAT Writing. Unlike some prep books which leave out the more complex and less-tested material, Meltzer gives a great amount of detail on even the rarest types of question, such as diction questions, for which she also includes a list of commonly confused words that have recently appeared on the SAT. All of the concepts have this level of thoroughness, which means this is a great resource for students who are looking for a book that will help them drill the most difficult types of questions. Going along with the previous point, Meltzer only covers minimal additional material that does not appear on the test. Most of this is foundational knowledge-type material, and she clearly notes that it won’t directly be tested. After introducing each grammar concept, Meltzer gives several example sentences of the concept being used both incorrectly and correctly. This is a great feature because it allows students both to see some common mistakes, and to see how they can be fixed. The practice questions are excellent. At the end of each concept-based chapter, Meltzer gives several practice questions. For the most part, these questions ask you to find a grammar mistake in the sentence and fix it. She also has very good cumulative tests after every few sections. Though these tests don’t follow the SAT format, I think they are very helpful because they gives students the chance to first make sure they really understand an individual grammar concept (with no help or guessing from multiple choice options!) in the chapter tests, and then follows that with good practice of finding different types of grammar mistakes, which is the skill you have to develop for the SAT. Additionally, she gives some of the best-written SAT Writing-style practice questions that you will be able to find outside of The Official SAT Study Guide. Her SAT-style questions test grammar concepts in the same way that the SAT does, and her writing style is extremely similar to the style used by the writers of the actual test. This means that you will have a valuable extra resource of practice questions, in addition to those in The Official SAT Study Guide. She explains every grammar question inThe Official SAT Study Guide. Some of my favorite resources in this book are Meltzer’s very detailed appendices. She goes through all of the practice tests in The Official SAT Study Guide and breaks them down by grammar concept tested. This is immensely valuable for students because when taking those practice tests, they can use these appendices as a guide for understanding what kinds of questions they are missing. Also, if you have a certain grammar concept you want to have more practice with, you can look up the specific questions in the Study Guide that cover that concept. Of course, this book could also be improved. Here’s how: This is a very dense book. While some students will love this writing style, others will find it very difficult to get through. While treating less important topics with a lot of thoroughness is what the highest-achieving students will be looking for, for most others it will simply be too much information. Going along with that, unlike Blackstone Review’s book mentioned above, Meltzer’s book is not very visually-friendly. For example, while she does tell which question types most frequently appear on each part of the test, you will need to read closely to get that information, which makes it more difficult to skim and skip around to cover the most important concepts. The example sentences she uses to explain and test grammar concepts do not look like the questions on the SAT. While this won’t be a negative for many students (and I personally think they are very effective at testing the grammar concepts), some students may want to stick to SAT-style questions. While Meltzer does give answer keys to all of her questions in the main text, she does not give detailed explanations for why the answers are right or wrong. This will not work very well for students who need more hand-holding to understand grammar mistakes. The workbook that accompanies the text gives additional practice that really should be included in the main book. As it is, it's expensive to have to buy two books to get what should be included in one. Finally, this book does not cover how to approach the essay, and the main text does not include practice questions for the Improving Paragraphs questions. So if you want to focus in on either of those sections of the test, this will not be the best book for you. Best SAT Writing Books For Mid-range Scorers (400 – 650) Barron’s SAT Writing Workbook by George Ehrenhaft Available on Amazon from $10.99 (Kindle) This book is great if you are a middle-range writer because it holds your hand like no other for the essay portion of the test. More advanced writers, however, will probably find some of the advice to be simplistic. There are a lot of things that make it great for a student at this level. It starts with a good, lengthy overview of each question type on SAT Writing. If you are less familiar with what you are going to see on SAT Writing or are particularly intimidated by the structure of the test, this will give you a good grounding to work with. It includes a full diagnostic test with SAT-style questions. After the explanations, this book gives a full diagnostic test of the Writing section of the SAT, including a practice essay question. The questions are very reminiscent of questions that have appeared on past SATs, so they should be helpful for students to understand their strengths and weaknesses. The best part of this is the detailed answer section, which not only gives several sample essay responses, but also goes through each multiple choice question in detail, telling why each correct answer is correct, and what grammar rule is violated by each incorrect answer. It gives in-depth instruction for the essay. This book dedicates a whopping 82 pages to how to write the essay. It takes you through everything you could possibly want to know, in detail. If you pair this with the basic strategy found in the Black Book listed above, you should have no further questions about how to improve your essay score. The grammar explanations are straightforward. All of the main grammar concepts that you will need to know for the test are briefly explained. This book does not go into as much detail as Meltzer’s book or the Blackstone Review book, but it is more than enough for what you will need for a mid-range score. After each grammar explanation, the book gives an SAT-style multiple choice question. It’s helpful for students to be able to immediately see the concept put to use in the way it will appear on the test. All of these multiple choice questions are followed with detailed answer explanations. There are also several practice questions that are not in the style of SAT questions, which are good for nailing down grammar concepts without the prop of having answer choices. The grammar concepts are divided by what you are most likely to find on each section of the test (Improving Sentences, Identifying Errors, and Improving Paragraphs). While there is a lot of overlap in the grammar concepts, this could be helpful for students to pinpoint where they are struggling if they tend to do worse on one section. This book also goes into greater detail on the Improving Paragraphs questions than many other test prep books do. There are a lot of opportunities for practice. Finally, the end of the book has four well-written practice tests, which will be good additional practice if you need more than the ones in The Official SAT Study Guide. All of the questions have detailed answer explanations. Where it could be improved: Many of the practice questions are not in the style of SAT questions, and some students will prefer to have more SAT-style questions to work with. The grammar explanations do not go into a lot of detail and can be vague. This lack of detail means that you may not get everything you need to master the trickiest concepts. Also, some of the grammar is repetitive because it is found in multiple sections (ie., both in Identifying Errors and in Improving Sentences). For SAT Writing Books for Low Scorers (400 and below) If you are getting a very low score on SAT Writing, it may be because you are a non-native speaker of English or are otherwise missing a fundamental understanding of how English grammar works. Since you can’t run before you walk, I would recommend starting with books that are not specifically aimed at the SAT, but are going to give you a strong grammar foundation that you can build upon with further study. English Grammar in Use by Raymond Murphy Available on Amazon from $16.78 English Grammar in Use is great for helping struggling students get to terms with grammar basics, especiallyverb tenses, their uses and special constructions. It also includes lessons on trickier subjects such as â€Å"may† vs. â€Å"might†, idiomatic preposition use, relative clauses, and participles. The pages are all written in simple, easily understood English. Every lesson is illustrated to further aid comprehension, and they're followed by a full page of practice exercises. This text has been popular for a long time for students learning English as a foreign language, but it is a helpful resource for anyone who needs a refresher of important grammar foundations. Easy Grammar Plus by Wanda C. Phillips Available on Amazon from $28.52. Phillips effectively teaches the basics of grammar and sentence construction by breaking them down into the different parts of speech. Every new topic has several pages of exercises for extensive drilling. It's this repetition that really helps the new concepts stick with students. This book is especially good for students who find the wording of other grammar books to be too complex. It is written with a 4th grade vocabulary, so you can focus your attention where it matters - on the grammar. How to use these books If you are a mid-range or high-range scorer, start out with reading through the Introduction and Writing sections in the Black Book (apart from the explanations to questions in the Official SAT Study Guide). This will help you get in the correct mindset to approach the test and is good to build general strategy. Take a practice Writing test from The Official SAT Study Guideand score it. Make a note of each question you got wrong or had to guess for. Mark down which section it was in (Improving Sentences, Identifying Errors, or Improving Paragraphs) and also what grammar concept it was testing. To do this, you can either use the appendix in Meltzer’s book, or you can use the explanations for The Official SAT Study Guide that can be found online. (Note that if you have chosen to use a book that includes a diagnostic test, you can use that instead and the answer explanations may make understanding your mistakes a lot easier!) In whatever book you choose, skim through the grammar concepts you are most comfortable with to make sure there is nothing that surprises you, but really focus your studying around the concepts that you missed in the practice test. Keep taking the practice tests in The Official SAT Study Guide to check how you are improving. If you are a low-range scorer, start studying a long time in advance (at least 6 months). Ideally, you should cover the material in the foundational books and then move on to one of the other books that focuses specifically on the SAT. Once you have given yourself time to get the basics down, follow the steps above. What’s Next? If you're not sure that book studying is for you, check out our test prep program. PrepScholar starts with a diagnostic test and then helps you focus your studying on what you need the most work on. Also check out our free resources to start prepping for the test. Our blog covers every grammar concept you will find on SAT Writing, as well as general strategies for each section. Aiming high? Look at these key strategies to score an 800 on SAT Writing, written by a perfect scorer. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Writing and grammar lesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

POST WAR FILMS Wings of Desire etcc Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

POST WAR FILMS Wings of Desire etcc - Term Paper Example The movie fantasy genre is based on the build up the movie was awarded being that the characters are angels who are some of the major characters in the film. The romance genre in the movie has been brought forth by the relationship established from the angel characters in the movie. Through the comparison with other related movies, the cinematic techniques in the movie this paper will bring out the historical back ground of the movie and the aesthetic aspects that builds up from the character relations within the movie and the related movies. From the background of the prior films that have been done by Wim Wanders, a number of those have been awarded both the English and the German titles. These include such movie as the ‘Reverse angle’ and the ‘Room 666’. From such movies, Wim Wanders acquired the experience of using the German setting in his movies which he later came to transfer to the movie Wings of desire. In relation to the cinematography techniques t hat have been appealed in the movie, one can clearly relate the experience gained by Wim from the prior movies as the plat form and foundation of the experience. There are certain techniques that can be said to have been reveled in relation to the cinematography techniques. ... Another aspect that can be said to appeal to the nature of the movie is that the movie is a Franco-German movie. This is a special alliance that came in place after the Second World War, at this time, the enmity that existed between France and Germany ended. The movie basis The movie basically embodies a story between angel and mortals, the director then award the angels a characteristic that they are invisible. Ideally, the angels are comfort givers for the families in Berlin. The two angels in the movie are unseen to the humans who from their side are able to see. The angels listen to the thoughts of the people and then offer them comfort. From the movie plot there are settings which establish and breaks down the movie main plot and the sub plot. The main plot of the movie is centered on the relationship that is established from Daniel’s desire to be with the beautiful trapeze girl who he fall in love with deeply and starts allowing the considerations of turning to human so as to be with her. The romantic theme is established further in the relationship between Damiel and Marion. This is brought out by the fact that the two aspire to be with each other, the barrier between them that is the mortality of Marion and the immortality of Damiel is equally significant as it build up most parts of the movie plot. Damiel aspires to be mortal as he wishes and longs for the things that the mortals undertake in the likeness of the human sensory pleasures and the touch of a loved one. Marion on the other hand also wishes she was immortal which she clearly bring out in her Cinematography techniques One of the most significant techniques that are used in the movie is the use

Macro and micro economics analysis Research Paper

Macro and micro economics analysis - Research Paper Example Toyota Camry is one of the popular cars that are being manufactured by Toyota. The car is available in global market in two classes, such as Narrow-Body; Compact class and Wide-Body; Mid-Size class. The car under these segments has achieved huge fame since its establishment in the year 1982. Indian car industry is very much potential and year after year the demand of cars is increasing significantly. The target audience of Toyota Camry in Indian market is the people who are highly educated and enjoys high living standard. Both men and women over 30 years of age are the key target consumer of this particular product. Indian automotive and car market is highly potential and competitive enough. Maruti Suzuki, Hyundai Motors, Tata Motors, Ford Motors and Mahindra and Mahindra are the major competitors of Toyota in Indian market (Kotler, 2009). Maruti Suzuki is the leading player within the Indian Vehicle industry according to the market share figure 2010 (Figure 1). Microeconomics Market Mechanism: Demand and Supply Considering the market mechanism in India, historical facts help us to understand the Indian market. India started manufacturing automobile after 1947. Before Independence in the times of 1920, the Maharajas possessed cars especially of Rolls Royce as their status symbols. With time after independence, the need for a people’s car evolved and the middle class families also started to own cars. Initially the indigenous automobile companies captured the majority of market share but with the liberalization in government policies, the foreign automobile giants like Toyota started to invest in the Indian market. For launch of Toyota Camry, Toyota can look at the positive indicators of Indian market which indicates that the Indian car market is the fourth largest in the continent of Asia and stands out as the fifth largest manufacturer of commercial vehicles. The price elasticity of demand and supply in the Indian market are the key factors that Toyota would need to consider before the launch of Toyota Camry. It is to be kept in mind that the cars in India are considered as a luxury product. Also the Indian market consists of consumers ranging from lower class to lower middle class to middle class to upper class. Thus various sections of the society according to their levels of income make the Indian car market a mixed bag. Thus the price of cars in Indian car market is a significant factor as market responses largely vary with respect to changes in the car price. With unit changes in price of the cars, the demand of the cars in India would decrease and the supply of cars in India would fall. Thus the price elasticity of demand and supply for cars in India is greater than 1 showing the demand and supply id highly elastic with respect to price of cars in India. Also the rise in price of related goods of car like petrol, diesel also affects the demand and supply of cars in India. Thus the factor of cross-elasticity of indirect goods like petrol is also present in the Indian car market. The income elasticity on demand and supply in the Indian car market also needs to be considered for the launch of Toyota Camry. The factors of production for Toyota Camry with respect to its launch in the Indian market include an analysis of the demand and supply of the car market in India. The Indian car market was de-licensed in 1991 with the gates in automobile sector opened for 100% investment by the foreign

City and Farm Life Essay Example for Free

City and Farm Life Essay Comparing and contrasting city and farm life has been a common theme of situation comedies, movies as well as novels for decades. Many people find themselves, at some point, questioning the advantages of living on a farm life to living in the city. While a case can be made for both locations as to which is the best place to live, it is vital to consider how the options, farm life versus city life, are similar as well as different. There are a number of ways to make such comparisons that include firsthand experience of each type of the city and farm living environments. One such contrast is that people living farm lives and those living city lives have different social constructs as far as health and physical activities are concerned. This is as a result of the various social circumstances of the communities in addition to the locations in which they reside. People living farm lives, live a typical farming or country life as compared to those living in the cities (Smith 1). Living a city life often has the advantage of sufficient access to health services, recreational facilities in addition to having relatively sufficient health education in comparison to farm life. see more:city life vs country life essay People living in the city have therefore an advantage of health benefits, developed knowledge of physical activities, are exposed to health promotion campaigns in addition to having higher socio-economic status. All these factors have contributed to people living a city lives experiencing superior health compared to those living farm lives (Recomparison 1). Another key issue to be considered in any comparison between city and farm life is the quality of life. People living city lives have many more choices they can make regarding various aspects of their day-to-day lives. For example, people living city lives are more likely to find various kinds of foods and this could probably result in overall good health as there is greater diversity in terms of diet. Moreover, those living city lives enjoy opportunities to take a great number of social events since they always have a long list to choose from. As a result of this, they always have an opportunity to get more cultured and therefore more likely to meet other people from other cultural and ethnic groups. Parents have also many options available for their childrens education and can always pick from a long list of both private and public schools, which results in potential for better education. It is also important to note that city life offer their residents the opportunity to choose from a wide range of job options in a number of companies or organizations. On the other hand, people living farm lives do not enjoy same level of choices and in very remote areas one may forced to walk for long distances (Recomparison 1). Another contrast between city and farm life is their surrounding environment. Farm life is often best described as a more peaceful as well as a healthy way of living. For example, farm life offers residents an opportunity to take pleasure in the natural world instead of having to go to places such as parks. Individuals are surrounded by the gifts of nature such as trees, sun, wind, animals, natural cycles etc. Moreover, people living farm lives do not have to struggle with the every day stresses associated with city life, for instance getting stuck in traffic, coping with high crime rates, and in most cases, having to pay higher taxes. The absence such stressors are known to have a significant effect on the overall quality of life. Alternatively, city life is often portrayed as fast-paced, modern, polluted, and full of work pressure as well as financial pressure (Recomparison 1). On the whole, if there is any testimonial to be made regarding the quality of life in the farm, it is that, there is high probability to connect with the people as well as the landscape. However, one similarity between farm life and city life is that both entail a high level of socialization, even though on a cursory level E-how 1). The discrepancy of what an individual wants and needs has also something to do with where they are to be found. Individuals living a farm life identify as well as prioritize their needs much more than their wants. They are therefore familiar with what is essential for them to live a standard of living further different from others and closer to natural cycles that gives priority to things that are of greater im portance. Their wants are simple and they do not cling to the life they cannot afford. On the other hand, with the attractive as well as the competition inducing advertisements they watch on television along with the peer persuasions that urge them to acquire specific items, one cannot avoid feeling pressured to possess the items. City is therefore more complicated as compared to the farm life (E-how 1). Lastly, a contrast between city and farm life can be seen in the types of housing available. In general, city residents have choices of living in apartments, townhouses and condominium. In contrast, those living farm lives often have housing options that includes mobile homes, single family detached homes in addition to the low-rise apartment building.Moreover; housing is more often than not cheaper for those living farm lives due to decreased demand (Herlihy 1). Conclusion As a conclusion, both city and farm lives have their own draw backs which form the basis of their contrasts. Thus, individuals ought to think carefully before making decisions to live in the city or live a farm life since its their decisions that bring differences in their lives.

personal strengths Essay -- essays research papers

Personal Strengths and Weaknesses A reason that this country works well is that everyone has diverse abilities which can contribute to everyday life. Some people let those abilities shine at work, in their personal life or both. As people have their strengths, they also have their weaknesses. There is a problem to improve those weaknesses when the weakness is not identified. Once the weak point is identified it needs to be resolved. A plan of action for improvement helps in solving the situation. In this paper, I will identify abilities and skills that I possess that contribute positively in my work environment, in my personal life, and in my learning team. I will also identify personal areas that need improvement, and outline a plan of action for improvement.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout my life, my strengths and weaknesses tend to gain more clarity, as I grow older. When I was younger, I did not focus too much on this part of myself. I was interested in child things. I must now use my strengths to improve my weaknesses to strengthen my faults. Several of my strengths are centered on my profession because the majority of my time is spent there. Some of my qualities are beneficial to different situations, while the other qualities hinder. Although we describe our strengths as positive attributes and our weaknesses as negative attributes, they make us who and what we are as individuals. Because of these qualities, each of us is unique in different ways. It is imp... personal strengths Essay -- essays research papers Personal Strengths and Weaknesses A reason that this country works well is that everyone has diverse abilities which can contribute to everyday life. Some people let those abilities shine at work, in their personal life or both. As people have their strengths, they also have their weaknesses. There is a problem to improve those weaknesses when the weakness is not identified. Once the weak point is identified it needs to be resolved. A plan of action for improvement helps in solving the situation. In this paper, I will identify abilities and skills that I possess that contribute positively in my work environment, in my personal life, and in my learning team. I will also identify personal areas that need improvement, and outline a plan of action for improvement.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout my life, my strengths and weaknesses tend to gain more clarity, as I grow older. When I was younger, I did not focus too much on this part of myself. I was interested in child things. I must now use my strengths to improve my weaknesses to strengthen my faults. Several of my strengths are centered on my profession because the majority of my time is spent there. Some of my qualities are beneficial to different situations, while the other qualities hinder. Although we describe our strengths as positive attributes and our weaknesses as negative attributes, they make us who and what we are as individuals. Because of these qualities, each of us is unique in different ways. It is imp...

Historical Background of Victimology Essay

I. Introduction The nature and extent of victimization is not adequately understood across the world. Millions of people throughout the world suffer harm as a result of crime, the abuse of power, terrorism and other stark misfortunes. Their rights and needs as victims of this harm have not been adequately recognized. The UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration on Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power in 1985. This provides a universal benchmark by which progress can be assessed in meeting the needs of victims of crime and abuse of power. Much progress has been made since 1985 primarily by governments in Western Europe, North America and elsewhere. They have implemented programmes and laws to give effect to those basic principles but even in affluent countries much work remains. Additional resources are needed everywhere especially for countries that are developing and in transition. The convention on transnational organized crime includes a specific section to protect the rights of victims as does the optional protocol on trafficking. By June, 2005, 99 nations had already ratified the Statute of Rome that establishes a permanent International Criminal Court which gives effect to the principles in the Declaration. The rights of the victims of crime and abuse of power are still not adequately recognized in any part of the world. Their families, witnesses and others, who aid them, are still unjustly subjected to loss, damage or injury. They too often suffer hardship when assisting in the prosecution of offenders. The recent UN Congress in Bangkok also drew attention to the victims of terrorism. Victims of stark misfortunes such as natural disasters, accidents and diseases share similar trauma, loss and suffering. Services to meet the needs of victims have much in common between victims of crime, abuse of power and stark misfortunes. Action must be taken to advance research, services and awareness for victims across the world. This requires persons committed to these ideals, better services, more research, innovative education and training and continued advocacy and rights. It requires a process of assessing progress and acting to make the necessary improvements. II. DISCUSSION I. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGY A. The Early Roots The word â€Å"victim† has its roots in many ancient languages that covered a great distance from northwestern Europe to the southern tip of Asia and yet had a similar linguistic pattern: victima in Latin; và ­h, wà ©oh, wà ­g in Old European; wà ­h, wà ­hi in Old High German; và © in Old Norse; weihs in Gothic; and, vinak ti in Sanskrit (Webster’s 1971). Victimology as an academic term contains two elements: †¢ One is the Latin word â€Å"Victima† which translates into â€Å"victim†. †¢ The other is the Greek word â€Å"logos† which means a system of knowledge, the direction of something abstract, the direction of teaching, science, and a discipline. Although writings about the victim appeared in many early works by such criminologists as Beccaria (1764), Lombroso (1876), Ferri (1892), Garà ³falo (1885), Sutherland (1924), Hentig (1948), Nagel (1949), Ellenberger (1955), Wolfgang (1958) and Schafer (1968), the concept of a science to study victims and the word â€Å"victimology† had its origin with the early writings of Beniamin Mendelsohn (1937; 1940), these leading to his seminal work where he actually proposed the term â€Å"victimology† in his article â€Å"A New Branch of Bio-Psycho-Social Science, Victimology† (1956). It was in this article that he suggested the establishment of an international society of victimology which has come to fruition with the creation of the World Society of Victimology, the establishment of a number of victimological institutes (including the creation in Japan of the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute); and, the establishment of international journals which are now also a part of this institute. Mendelsohn provided us with his victimology vision and blueprint; and, as his disciples we have followed his guidance. We now refer to Mendelsohn as â€Å"The Father of Victimology†. B. Critical Dates in Victimology †¢ 1924 Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on victims in his criminology textbook. †¢ 1937 Beniamin Mendelsohn publishes his writings on the rapist and his victim. †¢ 1941 Hans von Hentig publishes article on victim and criminal interactions. †¢ 1947 Beniamin Mendelsohn coins the term â€Å"victimology† in a French journal. †¢ 1948 Hans von Hentig publishes his book The Criminal and His Victim. †¢ 1949 Frederic Wertham first used the word â€Å"victimology† in a book Show of Violence. †¢ 1957 Margery Fry proposes victim compensation in the London Times. †¢ 1958 Marvin Wolfgang studies homicide victims; uses the term â€Å"victim precipitation†. †¢ 1963 New Zealand enacts the first Criminal Compensation Act. †¢ 1965 California is the first state in the USA to start Victim Compensation. †¢ 1966 Japan enacts Criminal Indemnity Law. †¢ 1966 USA starts to survey crime victims not reported to the police †¢ 1967 Canada creates a Criminal Compensation Injuries Act as does Cuba and Switzerland. †¢ 1968 Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology textbook The Victim and His Criminal. †¢ 1972 The first three victim assistance programmes are created in St. Louis, Missouri, San Francisco, California and in Washington, D. C. †¢ 1973 the first international symposium on victimology is held in Jerusalem, Israel. †¢ 1974 the first police-based victim advocate project started in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA. †¢ 1975 The first â€Å"Victim Rights’ Week† is organized by the Philadelphia District Attorney, * Associate Professor, Criminology Department, California State University, Fresno; Director, Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, Tokiwa University Victimology Graduate School, Japan. Pennsylvania, USA. †¢ 1976 John Dussich launches the National Organization of Vi ctim Assistance (NOVA) in Fresno, California, USA. †¢ 1976 Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly journal devoted to victimology. †¢ 1976 James Rowland creates the first Victim Impact Statement in Fresno, California, USA. †¢ 1979 The World Society of Victimology is founded in Munster, Germany. †¢ 1980 Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is founded by Candi Lightner after one of her twin daughters was killed by a drunk driver who was a repeat offender. †¢ 1981 President Ronald Reagan proclaims the first national Victims’ Rights Week in April. †¢ 1982 the first Victim Impact Panel established by MADD to educate drunk drivers about how their victims suffered, started in Rutland, Massachusetts, USA. †¢ 1984 The Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) establishes the national Crime Victims Fund from federal crime fines to pay for state victim compensation and services. †¢ 1985 The United Nations unanimously adopts the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. †¢ 1987 The US Department of Justice opens the National Victims Resource Centre in Rockville, Maryland. †¢ 1988 The first â€Å"Indian Nations: Justice for Victims of Crime† conference is held by the Office for Victims of Crime in Rapid City, South Dakota, USA. †¢ 1990 The European Forum for Victim Services was founded by all the national organizations in Europe working for victims of crime in consultative status with the Council of Europe and the UN. †¢ 1999 The United Nations and the US Office for Victims of Crime publish the Guide for Policymakers on the Implementation of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power and the Handbook on Justice for Victims: On the Use and Application of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. †¢ 2002 On 11 April, 66 the Rome Statute was ratified & went into force on 1 July at which time the International Criminal Court became effective and it included the creation of a Victim and Witness Unit. †¢ 2003 On October 2nd the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, in Mito Japan opened its doors to promote victim rights, to conduct seminars, courses, publish an international journal, and host annual symposia and lectures and research about victimology. †¢ 2004 The World Society of Victimology at its annual Executive Committee meeting in Orlando, Florida adopts a dramatic new strategic plan to commit itself to the ideals and promises of the UN Declaration. †¢ 2005 Japan puts the UN Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power into their national legislation by adopting a new fundamental law for crime victims. To ensure that the principles would be initiated, the Prime Minister established a cabinet level committee. The new law includes services for victims, restitution from the offender, information about criminal justice and a right to formally participate in the criminal justice process. C. Victim Assistance Since the mid 1970s victim assistance programmes in America had to cope with the realization that this new field did not have a professional corps of people with special training in dealing with crime victims. Those who were working in the programmes were a mixture of medical doctors, ministers, psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurses, on-the-job trained counsellors, persons outside the helping professions and volunteers with all levels of training. There were no international or national professional standards. There was no certificate or degree to prepare someone to do the work of helping victims recover. However, before formal victim assistance programmes evolved, there were some people trained to work with victim problems, especially people who had been helping child abuse and family violence victims. These were social workers. Today, the victim services scene has changed. There are a wide array of professionals and non-professionals working with victims. These would include: social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, nurses, medical doctors, non-specific professionals (who received their formal degrees in other fields but were trained to help victims in the numerous training schools which are both part and independent of academic settings); and, volunteers (who also received their training in the numerous training schools which are both part and independent of academic settings, many of which are 40 hour training modules offered by the victim service agencies where they work). Today the field of victim assistance is the major career field in victimology for persons wanting to help victims of crime directly. The single largest and oldest university offering a bachelor’s degree in victimology and a victim services certificate is the California State University, Fresno. Worldwide, it can be estimated that there are about 20,000 victim service programmes now operating: reducing suffering and facilitating recovery. II. KEY CONCEPTS IN VICTIMOLOGY A. Concepts 1. â€Å"Victim† has it roots in the early religious notions of suffering, sacrifice and death. This concept of â€Å"victim† was well known in the ancient civilizations, especially in Babylonia, Palestine, Greece, and Rome. In each of these civilizations the law mandated that the victim should be recognized as a person who deserved to be made whole again by the offender. 2. â€Å"Crime victim† is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone committing a crime. 3. â€Å"Victimogenesis† refers to the origin or cause of a victimization; the constellation of variables which caused a victimization to occur. 4. â€Å"Victim Precipitation† a victimization where the victim causes, in part or totally, their own victimization. 5. â€Å"Vulnerability† is a physical, psychological, social, material or financial condition whereby a person or an object has a weakness which could render them a victim if another person or persons would recognize these weaknesses and take advantage of them. 6. â€Å"General Victim† is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone, an event, an organization or a natural phenomenon. 7. â€Å"Victimization† refers to an event where persons, communities and institutions are damaged or injured in a significant way. Those persons who are impacted by persons or events suffer a violation of rights or significant disruption of their well being. 8. â€Å"Victimology† is an academic scientific discipline which studies data that describes phenomena and causal relationships related to victimizations. This includes events leading to the victimization, the victim’s experience, its aftermath and the actions taken by society in response to these victimizations. Therefore, victimology includes the study of the precursors, vulnerabilities, events, impacts, recoveries, and responses by people, organizations and cultures related to victimizations. 9. â€Å"Abuse of Power† is the violation of a national or international standard in the use of organized powerful forces such that persons are injured physically, mentally, emotionally, economically, or in their rights, as a direct and intentional result of the misapplication of these forces. 10. â€Å"Victim Assistance, Support or Services† are those activities which are applied in response to victimizations with the intention of relieving suffering and facilitating recovery. This includes offering information, assessments, individual interventions, case advocacy, system advocacy, public policy and programme development. 11. â€Å"Victim Recovery† is the resumption of the same or better level of functionality as was enjoyed prior to victimization. Persons who have been victimized vary in their level of mental health and wellbeing prior to their victimization. Consequently, victimization affects each person in a different way and causes differing degrees of injury or trauma. In their recovery it is necessary for victims to first try to regain their previous level of functioning plus learn from their misfortune and hopefully exceed their previous level of functionality. To be recovered suggests that a person has at least regained their prior level of well-being and at best, has exceeded it. This state may be measured by identifying their previous mental condition and determining if they have at least regained that prior status using the criteria of: trust in others, autonomy of self, individual initiative, competency in daily activities, self-identity, interpersonal intimacy, control over person al situations, successful relationships, safety in daily activities, acknowledgment of memory, trauma symptoms have become manageable, self esteem is restored, resourcefulness is achieved, and there is an improved ability to ward off potential threats. 12. â€Å"Child Abuse† is the intentional application of sexual, physical, emotional or psychological injury to a child to include neglect at the hands of her or his parents or care-provider within the confines of their family or place of care. 13. â€Å"Victim Offender Mediation† (VOM) is a formal process for face-to-face meetings in the presence of a trained mediator between a victim of a crime and his/her offender who committed that crime. This is also called victim-offender dialogue, victim-offender conferencing, victim-offender reconciliation, or restorative justice. Often the victim and the offender are joined by their respective families and community members or other persons related to the crime event. In these meetings, the offender and the victim talk to each other about the victimization, the effects it had on their lives, and their feelings about it. The aim is to create a mutually agreeable plan to repair any damage or injury that occurred as a result of th e crime in the hopes of permanently eliminating the conflict that caused the crime in the first place. 14. â€Å"Restorative Justice† is a systematic formal legal response to crime victimization that emphasizes healing the injuries that resulted from the crime and affected the victims, offenders and communities. This process is a departure from the traditional retributive form of dealing with criminals and victims which traditionally have generally perpetuated the conflict which resulted in the original crime. 15. â€Å"Victim Trauma† includes emotional and physical experiences that produce pain and injuries. Emotional injury is a normal response to an extremely abnormal event. It results from the pairing of a painful or frightening emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge and have a long lasting effect on the life of a person. The more direct the exposure to the traumatic event, the higher the risk for emotional harm and prolonged effects. 16. â€Å"Crisis Intervention† is the provision of emergency psychological care to traumatized victims so as to help them return to an adaptive level of functioning and to prevent or mitigate the negative impact of psychological and emotional trauma. 17. â€Å"Compensation† is a formal administrative procedure provided by law which provides only money to victims for â€Å"out of pocket† real expenses directly resulting from the victimization to be paid by the state after the victim is found to qualify according to specific criteria determined by the respective state or federal law. 18. â€Å"Restitution† is a formal judicial procedure used by a judge after guilt is determined as part of a sentence which can provide money and/or services to the victim for damages or suffering which resulted from the victimization to be paid or performed by the offender. 19. â€Å"Victim Survey† is a periodic data collection and analysis process conducted usually by a government entity within the general population to study information about crime victims regardless whether they reported their victimization to the police or not. It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview (or sent questionnaire) and covers demographics, attitudes about crime and details about the victimizations experienced over the previous six months. 20. â€Å"Victim Rights† are privileges and procedures required by written law which guarantee victims specific considerations and treatment by the criminal justice system, the government and the community at large. B. Abuse of Power 1. Background In spite of the legal sanctions which exist throughout the world to prevent the abuse of power (AOP), it continues to occur with growing frequency and relative impunity. There are essentially five considerations to abuse of power: the type of abuser; the specific abuser; the method used; the victims; and the extent of injury and damage. In each of these five considerations there are numerous examples ranging from the Government of South Africa’s use of apartheid on Black South Africans causing extensive death and suffering, to the criminal organization known as the MAFIA which uses racketeering, coercion, intimidation, graft and corruption on innocent citizens causing extensive death, suffering and property loss. The most recent example of AOP is the government of Yugoslavia (now dominated by ethnic Serbs) using extreme forms of aggression, against Croats, Bosnia Muslims, and most recently ethnic Kosovans with: mass killings; mass rapes; extensive destruction of property; buildings, and sacred cultural symbols, for the most part ignoring the protocols found in the Geneva Conventions for the conduct of warfare. This macro criminological/victimological phenomenon has been extensively reported on by the media and by scholars, but predominantly in narrative form. Thus far, very few attempts have been made to isolate the key variables, explain the dynamics of these events and measure their occurrences. 2. Theoretical Problem Like all phenomena, these abuse of power events lend themselves to definitions, theoretical organization and measurement. The magnitude of these occurrences dramatically turn our heads away from the dispassionate evaluation of the facts. The drama of these events is so compelling, even trained theorists put aside their research tools and yield to the subjective descriptions which overwhelm those chronicling these massive abuses. In spite of the strong emotions, the magnitude of the problem calls for careful measurement, analysis and synthesis so that a degree of understanding can emerge. This proposal will consider using the social behavioural and conflict theories familiar to most criminologist who study macro criminological phenomena. III. MEASURING VICTIMIZATION A. The Importance and Limitations of Descriptive Research Descriptive research is primarily concerned with generally characterizing a phenomenon to determine basic information about amount, frequencies and categories of a particular theme. Thus, one of the basic types of data in descriptive research is nominal level data or the counting of â€Å"apples and oranges†. The most important type of victimological descriptive research are victimization surveys. These surveys have thus far become the backbone of victimology information. Not only do these surveys give us the number and types of victims, they also give us trend information so that we can compare victims from one jurisdiction to another, from one type of victim to another, and we can measure the rate of victimization for a given population in a given time period. Another important measurement using survey research is the measurement of behaviours that exist as continua. These types of research give us information about the feelings, opinions and responses the victims have. Thus, they are very important in understanding the impact of victimization and the progress of recovery. 1. The Necessity of Evaluative Research Another important type of research is the evaluative research used to measure the official government or organizational responses to victimization and the programmes used to help victims cope. These types of research are aimed at measuring the systemic aspects of the victim experience. This is usually focused on the â€Å"Twin Criteria of Success†: effectiveness, which evaluates the achievement of programme objectives; and, efficiency which evaluates the consumption of resources over the time needed to achieve objectives. Another aspect of evaluative research is accountability, both economic and political. Economic accountability focuses on whether the existence of a particular programme in a given community is justified given the funds available and the value-system currently in existence. Political accountability focuses on whether the existence of a victim programme and its costs are supported by those in power. A large part of accountability has to do with community values, outcome expectations and official responsibilities. The measurement of these variables helps to socially contextualize a victim programme or response within the larger society or culture. 2. Explaining the Victimization with Causal Research Perhaps the most challenging and difficult form of victimological research is causal research. This research attempts to explain why and how some variables are effected by other variables in those phenomena dealing with victims. For example, it might try to understand why some victims are severely traumatized by an event, while other victims are not seriously impacted by the same event. The usual method of this form of research is to first create hypotheses about the relationships between cause variables and effect variables. Then, to measure these variables and see if the data can support the hypotheses. Ultimately, this process can lead to understanding not just one casual link, but many connected causal links, or a causal chain. A victimologist can then develop a theoretical statement with the new facts uncovered using causal research. These theoretical statements help to understand complex social and psychological victim phenomenon. Consequently persons working to prevent victimization could have empirically derived facts so as to reduce the vulnerability of potential victims. Crisis interveners could effectively reduce the suffering of victims immediately after the victimization and prevent the escalation of trauma. Advocates and therapists, basing their response on protocol analysis, could better know what works to facilitate victim recovery and reduce or eliminate long-term suffering and promote the return to stable and functional lives for those victimized. IV. THE FUTURE OF VICTIMOLOGY A. Promising Practices As new programmes and new laws evolve some prove effective and others not. In the search for programmes and laws that fulfil the fundamental aims of the United National Declaration, â€Å"to be treated with compassion and respect for their dignity, to be provided with access to the mechanisms of justice and to prompt redress to be informed of their rights, to be informed of their role and the scope, timing and progress of the proceedings and of the disposition of their case, to be provided with proper assistance throughout the legal process, to have their privacy protected and insure their safety, to be considered for receipt of restitution, to be informed about receiving compensation.† These criteria determine the value of programmes and laws so that they can be evaluated and ultimately recommended as worthy of duplication. In each of the sub-categories of victim programmes, laws, practices and rights, specific examples have become known. Some of these are listed below (from the New Directions from the Field: Victims’ Rights and Services for the 21st Century, U.S. Department of Justice, 1998). 1. Law Enforcement †¢ In San Diego, California there is a partnership between the police and the YWCA which resulted in a Community Domestic Violence Resource Network. This has resulted in a major resource for all the police agencies in the community for accurate information about the availability of shelters at any given time. †¢ In Provo, Utah victims participate in crime solving, called â€Å"victim-assisted† investigations. †¢ In Orange County, California a group of five victim advocates working together in a non-profit programme work with police and prosecutors to ensure comprehensive services for victims of gang violence. 2. Prosecution †¢ In Kenosha, Wisconsin, a programme established by the district attorney established special prosecution units for domestic violence and sensitive crimes. †¢ In Pinellas County, Florida, the state’s attorney’s office established a special prosecutor to be responsible for all elder exploitation and neglect cases. This includes police training, community outreach and education for other prosecutors. †¢ In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Victim Services Unit located in the District Attorney’s Office, employs Vietnamese and Cambodian victim-witness coordinators to assist victims from Southeast Asia throughout their case process, including translating information and helping victims with emergency medical and financial assistance. 3. Judiciary †¢ In Tucson, Arizona, the Municipal Court established a partnership with the police, victim advocates, prosecutors and health care professionals to form a Community Domestic Violence Awareness Centre. †¢ In New York State, the Permanent Judicial Commission on Justice for Children was established to provide assistance to children in the courts so as to provide a special space for child care so that those children whose parents are in court have a safe haven during their stay. †¢ In Santa Clara County, California, the courts have established local family violence councils to provide a comprehensive response to domestic violence. 4. Corrections †¢ In Texas, the Department of Criminal Justice started a victim-offender mediation/dialogue programme for victims of severe violence and their incarcerated offenders. †¢ In California one of the best known victim-offender programmes is the Impact of Crime on Victims (IOC) initiated by the California Youth Authority. This programme is aimed at providing 40 hours of education to inform offenders about how crimes affect victims and society. †¢ The US Federal Bureau of Prisons piloted victim awareness classes on drug and domestic violence crimes for offenders in halfway houses in Baltimore, Maryland, and Tampa, Florida. B. Reality of Promising Practices Although a wide variety of new programmes have been tried and dubbed as â€Å"promising† most of these have not been subjected to any form of empirical evaluation. Before these programme can be accepted as worthy of duplication, they must be carefully scrutinized over a sufficient time period. V. Demographic Characteristics The risk of becoming a crime victim varies as a function of demographic variables such as: †¢ Gender †¢ Age †¢ Race †¢ Socioeconomic class Gender With the exception of sexual assault and domestic violence, men have higher risk of assault than women (Gelles & Straus, 1988; Hanson et al., 1993; Norris, 1992). Lifetime risk of homicide is three to four times higher for men than women (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). Age Adolescents have substantially higher rates of assault than young adults or older Americans (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992; Hanson et al., 1993; Kilpatrick, Edmunds & Seymour, 1992; Kilpatrick et al., in press; Reiss & Roth, 1993; Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from the National Crime Victimization Survey indicate that 12-to-19 year olds are two to three times as likely as those over 20 to become victims of personal crime each year (Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from The National Women’s Study indicate that 62% of all forcible rape cases occurred when the victim was under 18 years of age (Kilpatrick et al., 1992). Race Racial and ethnic minorities have higher rates of assault than other Americans (FBI Uniform Crime Report, 1992; Hanson et al., 1993; Kilpatrick et al., 1991; Reiss & Roth, 1993). In 1990, African-Americans were six times more likely than white Americans to be homicide victims (FBI Uniform Crime Report, 1992). Rates of violent assault are approximately twice as high for African- and Hispanic-Americans compared to White Americans (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Kilpatrick et al. (1991) found that African-Americans (28%) and Hispanic-Americans (30%) were significantly more likely than White Americans (19%) to have ever been violent victims of crime. Socioeconomic Class Violence disproportionately affects those from lower socioeconomic classes (U. S. Bureau of the Census, 1991). Family income is related to rates of violence and victimization, with lower income families at a higher risk than those from higher income brackets (Reiss & Roth, 1993). †¢ For example, in 1988, the risk of victimization was 2.5 times greater for families with the lowest incomes (under $7,500) compared to those with the highest ($50,000 and over) (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Using longitudinal data from The National Women’s Study, Kilpatrick et al., (in press) found that women with household incomes less than $10,000 had odds 1.8 times greater than those with incomes of $10,000 or more of becoming a rape or aggravated assault victim in the two year follow-up period. Poverty increased the risk of assault even after controlling for the effects of prior victimization and sensation seeking. However, some other studies report that family income is a less important predictor of victimization than gender, age, or ethnicity (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Interpreting Demographic Characteristic Data Some of the conflicting findings about demographic characteristics as risk factors for violent crime are attributable to methodological variations across studies. Another reason for conflicting findings is that many demographic variables are confounded. That is, they are so interrelated as to cause some difficulty in separating out their relative contributions. Demographic variables of age, gender, and racial status all tend to be confounded with income: young people tend to be poorer than older people; women tend to have less income than men; and African-Americans tend to have less income than white Americans. Repeat Victimization and the Cycle of Violence Until recently, there was little appreciation of the extent to which many people are victims of crime not just once, but several times during their lifetime. There was sufficient understanding of how repeated victimization increases the risk for and complexity of crime-related psychological trauma. Nor did we understand the extent to which victimization increases the risk of further victimization and/or of violent behavior by the victim. Several studies show that a substantial proportion of crime victims has been victimized more than once and that a history of victimization increases the risk of subsequent violent assault (e.g. Kilpatrick et al., in press; Koss & Dinero, 1989; Resnick, Kilpatrick, Dansky, Saunders & Best, 1993; Kilpatrick et al., 1992; Reiss & Roth, 1993; Wyatt, Guthrie & Notgrass, 1992; Zawitz, 1983). Other research suggests that the risk of developing PTSD and substance use/abuse problems is higher among repeat victims of violent assault than among those who have experienced only one violent assault (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press; Breslau et al., in press; Kilpatrick, Resnick, Saunders, Best & Epstein, 1994). Still other evidence suggests that youth victimization history increases risk of involvement with delinquent peers and of subsequent delinquent behavior (Ageton, 1983; Dembo et al., 1992; Straus, 1984; Widom, 1989, 1992). Some research shows that involvement with delinquent or deviant peers increases the risk of victimization (e.g., Ageton, 1983), and that substance use also increases risk of victimization (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., 1994; Cottler, Compton, Mager, Spitznagel, and Janca, 1992). Another line of research has found that a history of child abuse and neglect increases risk of delinquent behavior during childhood and adolescence and of being arrested for violent assault as an adult (e.g., Widom, 1989, 1994). This new knowledge about repeat victimization and the cycle of violence has several implications for appropriate mental health counseling for crime victims: †¢ Mental health professionals should include crime prevention and substance abuse prevention in their work with victims to decrease the risk that new victimization or substance abuse problems will occur (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press; Kilpatrick et al., 1994). †¢ Mental health professionals should not assume that the crime they are treating is the only one the victim has experienced. This requires taking a careful crime victimization history. †¢ Providing effective mental health counseling to victims may well be an effective way to reduce the risk of future victimization, substance use /abuse, delinquency and violent behavior. Residential Location Where an individual lives influences one’s risk of becoming a violent crime victim. Reiss and Roth (1993) report that violent crime rates increased as a function of community size. For example, the violent crime rate was 359 per 100,000 residents in cities of less than 10,000; but 2,243 per 100,000 in cities with populations over a million translates to rates seven times greater. (Reiss & Roth, 1993; p. 79). Data including non-reported crimes from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) also indicate that violent crime rates are highest in central cities, somewhat lower in suburban areas, and lowest in rural areas (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). The UCR and the NCVS are better at measuring street crime than at measuring violent crimes perpetrated by acquaintances or partners. Thus, the assumption that the increased risk of violent assault associated with residential location most likely results from stranger attacks, not necessarily from attacks by family members or other intimates, is a function of the limits of the measurement device. Exposure to Potential Assailants No violent assault can occur unless an assailant has access to a potential victim. Someone could have every previously discussed risk factor for violent assault and be completely safe from assault unless approached by an assailant. A prominent theory attempting to predict risk of criminal victimization is the routine activities theory. As described by Laub (1990), the risk of victimization is related to a person’s lifestyle, behavior, and routine activities. In turn, lifestyles and routine activities are generally related to demographic characteristics (e.g., age and marital status) and other personal characteristics. If a person’s lifestyle or routine activities places him or her in frequent contact with potential assailants, then they are more likely to be assaulted than if their routine activities and lifestyle do not bring them into as frequent contact with predatory individuals. For example, young men have higher rates of assaultive behavior than any other age-gend er group (Reiss & Roth, 1993; Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991). Thus, those whose routine activities or lifestyles involve considerable contact with young men should have higher rates of victimization. Likewise, people who are married, who never leave their houses after dark, and who never take public transportation should have limited contact with young men, and therefore have reduced risk of assault. Although some have argued that routine activities theory has substantial support in the empirical literature (Laub, 1990; Gottfredson, 1981), most of the crime victimization data that are used to evaluate assault risk measure stranger assaults much better than partner or acquaintance assaults. Thus, the theory is probably much more relevant to stranger assaults than to other assaults. VI. Conclusion and Recommendation Crime-related psychological trauma impairs the ability and/or willingness of many crime victims to cooperate with the criminal justice system. Many argued that victims must be treated better by the criminal justice system because it cannot accomplish its mission without the cooperation of victims. At every key stage of the criminal justice system process–from contemplating making a report to police, to attending a parole hearing–interactions can be stressful for victims and often exacerbates crime-related psychological trauma. Victims whose crime-related fear makes them reluctant to report crimes to police or who are too terrified to testify, effectively make it impossible for the criminal justice system to accomplish its mission. Thus, it is important to understand: †¢ Victims’ crime-related mental health problems. †¢ What aspects of the criminal justice system process are stressful to victims. †¢ What can be done to help victims with their crime-related mental health problems. †¢ What can be done to help victims cope with criminal justice system-related stress. Effective partnerships among the criminal justice system, victim assistance personnel, and trained mental health professionals can help victims with crime-related psychological trauma and with criminal justice system-related stress. By helping victims through such partnerships, the criminal justice system also helps itself become more effective in curbing and reducing crime. Several factors in the application of different conditioning principles to victims’ interactions with the criminal justice system helps us understand why the criminal justice system is so stressful for many victims. First, involvement with the criminal justice system requires crime victims to encounter many cognitive and environmental stimuli that remind them of the crime. These range from: †¢ Having to look at the defendant in the courtroom. †¢ Having to think about details of the crime when preparing to testify. †¢ Confronting a member of â€Å"second-order conditioned stimuli† in the form of police, victim/witness advocates, and prosecutors. Second, encountering all these crime-related conditioned stimuli often results in avoidance behavior on the part of the victims. †¢ Such avoidance behavior is generated by conditioned fear and anxiety, not by apathy. Avoidance can lead victims to cancel or not show up for appointments with criminal justice system officers, or victim advocates. Aside from conditioning, there are several other reasons that interacting with the criminal justice system can be stressful for victims. †¢ One reason interactions are stressful is because victims lack information about that system and its procedures, and victims fear the unknown. †¢ A second reason interactions are stressful is that victims are concerned about whether they will be believed and taken seriously by the criminal justice system. Most victims view the criminal justice system as representative of society as a whole, and whether they are believed and taken seriously by the system indicates to them whether they are believed and taken seriously by society. VI. Bibliography 1. (Bachman, 1994; Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992; FBI Uniform Crime Reports, 1992; Hanson, Freedy, Kilpatrick, and Saunders, 1993; Kilpatrick, Seymour & Boyle, 1991; Breslau, Davis, Andreski, and Peterson, 1991; Kilpatrick , Resnick, Saunders, and Best, in press; Norris, 1992; Adler et al., 1994; Reiss & Roth, 1993; Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991). 2. Dussich, John and Kiyoko Kishimoto. 2000. â€Å"Victim Assistance in Japan: History, Culture and Programmes.† In Paul C. Friday and Gerd Ferdinand Kirchhoff (editors) Victimology at the Transition: From the 20th to the 21st Century: Essays in Honor of Hans Joachim Schneider. M nchengladbach, Germany: Shaker Verlag. 3. Schafer, Stephen. 1968. The Victim and His Criminal. New York: Random House. 4. www.wikipedia.com 5. www.google.com.ph â€Å"Victimology†

Malcolm X Essay

1.What details of the events has each writer selected to focus on? Each writer selected to focus on the person that Malcolm X was overall. I believe that they put so much emphasis on the events that took place up until his assassination to show how important he was. Each person meant what his purpose was in the ballroom that day. Each writer also mentioned how many people were there to show his importance also. One crucial detail was that Malcolm X was shot by a member of his own race. 2.How has each writer organized the details that have been selected? Each writer organized the details as if they were watching a television show. They presented the end result first. Then they explained what led to that outcome. Afterwards they explained the reaction the assassination. I can relate to the way they organized the details. When I witness or find something out, I normally say what happened. For example, â€Å"Amber, the car is broken.† Of course the next question would be, how? 3.How does each writer interpret Malcolm X, his followers, the gunmen, and the significance of the assassination? Each writer perceived Malcolm X to be a leader, respected by many. They showed how relaxed he was when the argument began. His followers were in shock because he showed them how to be calm and control themselves through hard times. The gunmen were perceived as someone Malcolm X had problems with in the past. The assassination was shocking because he was killed by a black man when he focused on the mistreatment of the whites. 4.How has each writer used language to express his or her perspectives and to influence the thinking of the reader? Each writer used language by explaining the emotions of everyone when the assassination occurred. The writers wrote in a way to show how important Malcolm X life was. I think that expressing how you felt on a situation is the best way to connect to writers. Your feelings can help others relate.

Victims of mass hysteria essays

Victims of mass hysteria essays Hysteria is defined as behavior exhibiting overwhelming or unmanageable fear or emotional excess. These feelings shared by the masses causes much chaos and many people to get hurt. Throughout the years, starting in 1692 with the Salem Witch Trials through to the 20th century with the Robert Roberson Case, there have been many instances of this mass hysteria all containing similarities and differences between them. The similarity between all these cases is that no matter where the accusations took place throughout the country, all people persecuted by mass hysteria, were done so because they were different in some way. During the Salem Witch Trails people were persecuted because the other towns people believed they did not follow their god. Between 1942 and 1946 more than 120,000 Japanese natives living in the United States were placed in internment camps because a country they no longer lived in had attacked Pearl Harbor. During the McCarthy Hearings in 1954 people were blamed for not being American enough because they had different beliefs about the society they lived in. In the Robert Roberson Case a pastor and his wife were persecuted because they were accused of sexual abuse without being tried for it. All of these accused people caused change to the normalcy of the general public and because of it they were scrutinized and treated poorly. The victims of mass hysteria all had their reputations completely ruined, and every society they lived in never saw these people as they had before any accusations had ever been made. The differences in the cases are not as broad as the similarities. Although these people were persecuted because they were different they were all persecuted because of different specific reasons. In the Salem Which Trials, twenty villagers were hanged and killed because they would not lie and say they did dealings with the devil. No other group was largely and publicly punished for thei...

Bluebuck - Facts and Figures

Bluebuck - Facts and Figures Name: Bluebuck; also known as Hippotragus leucophaeus Habitat: Plains of South Africa Historical Epoch: Late Pleistocene-Modern (500,000-200 years ago) Size and Weight: Up to 10 feet long and 300-400 pounds Diet: Grass Distinguishing Characteristics: Long ears; thick neck; bluish fur; large horns on males About the Bluebuck European settlers have been blamed for countless species extinctions the world over, but in the case of the Bluebuck, the impact of western settlers may be oversold: the fact is that this large, muscular, donkey-eared antelope was well on its way to oblivion well before the first westerners arrived in South Africa in the 17th century. By then, it seems, climate change had already restricted the Bluebuck to a limited swatch of territory; up until about 10,000 years ago, shortly after the last Ice Age, this megafauna mammal was widely dispersed across the expanse of South Africa, but it gradually became restricted to about 1,000 square miles of grassland. The last confirmed Bluebuck sighting (and killing) occurred in Cape Province in 1800, and this majestic game animal hasnt been seen since. (See a slideshow of 10 Recently Extinct Game Animals) What set the Bluebuck on its slow, inexorable course toward extinction? According to the fossil evidence, this antelope prospered for the first few thousand years after the last Ice Age, then suffered a sudden decline in its population starting about 3,000 years ago (which was probably caused by the disappearance of its accustomed tasty grasses by less-edible forests and bushlands, as the climate warmed). The next deleterious event was the domestication of livestock by the original human settlers of South Africa, around 400 B.C., when overgrazing by sheep caused many Bluebuck individuals to starve. The Bluebuck may also have been targeted for its meat and pelt by these same indigenous humans, some of whom (ironically) worshiped these mammals as near-deities. The relative scarcity of the Bluebuck may help explain the confused impressions of the first European colonizers, many of whom were passing on hearsay or folk tales rather than witnessing this ungulate for themselves. To begin with, the fur of the Bluebuck wasnt technically blue; most likely, observers were fooled by its dark hide covered by thinning black hair, or it may have been its intermingled black and yellow fur that gave the Bluebuck its characteristic tint (not that these settlers really cared much about the Bluebucks color, since they were busy hunting herds relentlessly to clear land for pasture). Oddly enough, considering their meticulous treatment of other soon-to-be-extinct species, these settlers managed to preserve only four complete Bluebuck specimens, which are now on display in various museums in Europe. But enough about its extinction; what was the Bluebuck actually like? As with many antelopes, the males were bigger than the females, weighing upwards of 350 pounds and equipped with impressive, backward-curving horns that were used to compete for favor during mating season. In its overall appearance and behavior, the Blueback (Hippotragus leucophaeus) was very similar to two extant antelopes that still roam the coast of southern Africa, the Roan Antelope (H. equinus) and the Sable Antelope (H. niger). In fact, the Bluebuck was once considered a subspecies of the Roan, and was only later accorded full species status.

Slavery and The Genesis of American Race Prejudice Essay

Slavery and The Genesis of American Race Prejudice - Essay Example Degler however refers to the writing of Frank Tannenbaum to cast doubt to this assumption held not only by Tocqueville, but many others in regard to the issue, he argues that if slavery was the course of discrimination, then the ensuing prejudice should have been uniformly evident in all societies that embraced slavery. However, the levels of discrimination that Negroes in the United States underwent after slavery is significantly more severe than those suffered by Negroes in other parts of the world. Degler argues that that slavery cannot be seen as a cause for discrimination since the prejudice existed long before slavery, thus, he thus seeks to strengthen his position by examining the retrospective treatment of Negroes before the term slavery came to be applied socially and legally to them. He argues that before, and during slavery, a Negro free or slave occupied a lower and degraded position in society than any white man. Degler also opposes an argument suggested by Handlin that during the 17th century the position of the white servants was improving while that of the black ones was becoming worse; Degler demonstrates that white servants were very badly treated in New England. He uses this to prove that if the position of blacks was to be compared to that of the white servants, the fact that the former were worse off leaves one in doubt of the validity of the explanation that blacks were not being discriminated before slavery became a legal reality. Degler emphasizes that despite the fact that a negro was rarely called as lave before the 17th century, the position he held as an individual and a servant was subject to extreme discrimination and was at no time comparable to that of even the most oppressed white servant. The difference between the treatment of Negros, slave or free in the Iberian and English colonies is explained thus; in the English colony, discrimination antedated slavery ergo slavery when it was developed there simply inherited the attitude of Negro inferiority that was already in existence. Degler further assets that before the official use of the term slave, black servants were often in servitude that exceeded that of white ones, for example, in case of escaped servants, while white servants had time added to their term of service blacks were either made â€Å"servant† the rest of their natural lives. In some cases their punishment did not have to do with time since they were already serving for life, in addition, servitude, while a white servants children could not inherit it was often passed on from parents to children. Based on this and other reasoning Degler disputes the assumption that slavery gave birth to discrimination and attempts with a significant degree of success to prove that discrimination was not a result of slavery but it was borne off prejudice and xenophobia dating long before slavery. Degler has referred to several works in his quest to disabuse the notion that slavery gave birth to prejud ice and one of them is Frank Tannenbaum, he reasoned that the reason the inferiority of slavery did not continue in Iberian countries after slavery could be attributed to three factors (Charles). These were; that the Roman law of slavery, which was influenced, by the Catholic Church and constant contact with dark skinned people took a pragmatic view of slavery as a mere accident to which anyone despite their color could be a victim. Ergo, unlike the North America where slavery was mostly the reserve of the dark blacks and laws put up to